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Words of Warmth: Social-Perception Norms via Best-Worst Scaling

Rate individual English words on four social-perception dimensions - warmth, competence, sociability, and trust - using Best-Worst Scaling. Annotators see a 4-tuple of words and pick the highest and lowest word for each dimension; real-valued scores are derived from best-minus-worst counts. This is the annotation design behind Words of Warmth, a lexicon of 26,000+ words (and multiword expressions) that complements affect lexicons like NRC-VAD and WorryWords by capturing the warmth/competence axes from the social psychology Stereotype Content Model (Mohammad, ACL 2025).

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Configuration Fileconfig.yaml

This Potato config reproduces the annotation task. Save it as config.yaml and run potato start config.yaml to try it.

yaml
# Words of Warmth: Social-Perception Norms via Best-Worst Scaling
# Based on Mohammad (ACL 2025), "Words of Warmth: Trust and Sociability
# Norms for over 26k English Words."
#
# Words of Warmth extends affect lexicons (valence/arousal/dominance,
# emotion intensity, anxiety) to the SOCIAL-PERCEPTION space studied in
# social psychology's Stereotype Content Model. Two primary dimensions
# organize how we perceive people and groups:
#   - Warmth:     is this entity friendly / well-intentioned / trustworthy?
#   - Competence: is this entity capable / skilled / effective?
# Warmth is further decomposed into two facets:
#   - Sociability: friendliness, likability, being pleasant to be around.
#   - Trust:       honesty, morality, dependability.
#
# Best-Worst Scaling (BWS / MaxDiff) annotation design:
#   - Annotators are shown a set (tuple) of four words.
#   - For each dimension they pick the ONE word that is highest and the ONE
#     word that is lowest on that dimension.
#   - Each word appears in many different 4-tuples across the study.
#   - A real-valued score in [0, 1] per word is later computed as the
#     proportion of times chosen best minus the proportion chosen worst.
#     BWS yields far more reliable scores than absolute numeric ratings.
#
# Annotation guidelines:
#   1. Judge the word's typical, out-of-context social association - the
#      impression it evokes about a person or group described by it.
#   2. Answer each dimension independently. A word can be high on one and
#      low on another (e.g., "ruthless" is low warmth but high competence;
#      "clumsy" is high warmth-ish but low competence).
#   3. The best and worst word may differ across the four dimensions.
#   4. If a word is unfamiliar, use the Skip button rather than guessing.

annotation_task_name: "Words of Warmth Best-Worst Scaling"
task_dir: "."

data_files:
  - sample-data.json

item_properties:
  id_key: "id"
  text_key: "prompt"
  text_display_key: "prompt"
  list_display_key: "options"

output_annotation_dir: "annotation_output/"
output_annotation_format: "json"

annotation_schemes:
  # ---- Warmth (overall) ----
  - annotation_type: radio
    name: warmth_best
    description: "WARMTH - which word conveys the MOST warmth (friendly, well-intentioned)?"
    labels:
      - "Word 1"
      - "Word 2"
      - "Word 3"
      - "Word 4"

  - annotation_type: radio
    name: warmth_worst
    description: "WARMTH - which word conveys the LEAST warmth (cold, ill-intentioned)?"
    labels:
      - "Word 1"
      - "Word 2"
      - "Word 3"
      - "Word 4"

  # ---- Competence ----
  - annotation_type: radio
    name: competence_best
    description: "COMPETENCE - which word conveys the MOST capability / skill?"
    labels:
      - "Word 1"
      - "Word 2"
      - "Word 3"
      - "Word 4"

  - annotation_type: radio
    name: competence_worst
    description: "COMPETENCE - which word conveys the LEAST capability / skill?"
    labels:
      - "Word 1"
      - "Word 2"
      - "Word 3"
      - "Word 4"

  # ---- Sociability (facet of warmth) ----
  - annotation_type: radio
    name: sociability_best
    description: "SOCIABILITY - which word is MOST likable / pleasant to be around?"
    labels:
      - "Word 1"
      - "Word 2"
      - "Word 3"
      - "Word 4"

  - annotation_type: radio
    name: sociability_worst
    description: "SOCIABILITY - which word is LEAST likable / pleasant to be around?"
    labels:
      - "Word 1"
      - "Word 2"
      - "Word 3"
      - "Word 4"

  # ---- Trust / morality (facet of warmth) ----
  - annotation_type: radio
    name: trust_best
    description: "TRUST - which word conveys the MOST honesty / dependability?"
    labels:
      - "Word 1"
      - "Word 2"
      - "Word 3"
      - "Word 4"

  - annotation_type: radio
    name: trust_worst
    description: "TRUST - which word conveys the LEAST honesty / dependability?"
    labels:
      - "Word 1"
      - "Word 2"
      - "Word 3"
      - "Word 4"

allow_all_users: true
instances_per_annotator: 100
annotation_per_instance: 4
allow_skip: true
skip_reason_required: false

Sample Datasample-data.json

json
[
  {
    "id": "wow_001",
    "prompt": "Word 1: friendly | Word 2: ruthless | Word 3: brilliant | Word 4: clumsy",
    "options": [
      "friendly",
      "ruthless",
      "brilliant",
      "clumsy"
    ]
  },
  {
    "id": "wow_002",
    "prompt": "Word 1: generous | Word 2: cruel | Word 3: skilled | Word 4: incompetent",
    "options": [
      "generous",
      "cruel",
      "skilled",
      "incompetent"
    ]
  }
]

// ... and 8 more items

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View on GitHub

Clone or download from the repository

Quick start:

git clone https://github.com/davidjurgens/potato-showcase.git
cd potato-showcase/text/emotion-sentiment/words-of-warmth-bws
potato start config.yaml

Dataset & paper

Mohammad, ACL 2025

Citation (BibTeX)

bibtex
@inproceedings{mohammad-2025-words,
    title = "Words of Warmth: Trust and Sociability Norms for over 26k {E}nglish Words",
    author = "Mohammad, Saif M.",
    booktitle = "Proceedings of the 63rd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers)",
    year = "2025",
    publisher = "Association for Computational Linguistics",
    url = "https://aclanthology.org/2025.acl-long.922"
}

Details

Annotation Types

radio

Domain

NLPAffective ComputingSocial PsychologyLexicon Building

Use Cases

Warmth-CompetenceBias and Stereotype AnalysisLexicon BuildingBest-Worst Scaling

Tags

best-worst-scalingmaxdiffwarmthcompetencesociabilitytruststereotype-content-modelword-levelmohammadacl2025

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